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Before being open, innovation happened in closed environments often performed by individuals, scientists or employees. However, the expression closed innovation was coined later and not before the paradigm of open innovation became popular by works of Henry Chesbrough〔Chesbrough, H.W. (2003). Open Innovation: The new imperative for creating and profiting from technology. Boston: Harvard Business School Press〕 and Don Tapscott et Anthony D. Williams 〔Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything.〕 Closed Innovation was described in March 2003 by Henry Chesbrough, a professor and executive director at the Center for Open Innovation at UC Berkeley, in his book ''Open Innovation: The new imperative for creating and profiting from technology''.〔 The concept is related to user innovation, Know-How Trading and mass innovation and subject of recent research projects 〔(Strategic management and open innovation at ETH Zurich )〕 ==Origin of Closed Innovation== The paradigm of closed innovation says that successful innovation requires control and ownership of the Intellectual property (IP). A company should control the creation and management of ideas. Roots of closed innovation go back to the beginning of the twentieth century when universities and governments were not involved in the commercial application of science. Some companies therefore decided to run their own research and development units. The entire new product development (NPD) cycle was then integrated within the company where innovation was performed in a "closed" and self-sufficient way. The period between the end of World War II and the mid-1980s was the era of closed innovation and internal R&D. Many R&D departments of private companies were at the leading edge of scientific research. The setup of internal R&D was perceived as a strong barrier for potential new competitors, as large investments had to be made to be able to compete〔adapted from (http://open-your-innovation.com )〕 Often, closed innovation paradigms are set equal to the “Not Invented Here” syndrome sometimes referred to by decision makers: everything coming from outside is suspicious and not reliable. However, there are ongoing research projects 〔 and emerging companies 〔(Innocentive ), (ninesigma ), (Starmind )〕 that investigate the pros and cons of closed innovation versus open innovation. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Closed innovation」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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